Portugaliae
Electrochimica Acta

Concerns about environmental pollution and depletion of petroleum and coal supplies in the twenty-first century have prompted a shift towards more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives. Lignocellulosic biomass (LCB), which contains hemicellulose, lignin (Ln), and cellulose, is a widely available natural bioresource. Ln, a natural biopolymer, has become more recognized as a valuable material with economic uses. The current research provides in-depth information on the evolution of phenol, from an impediment to a bridge connecting many industries with diverse applications. Successful valorization of Ln for the production of bio-based platforms, fuels, and chemical products has been the subject of extensive investigation. Understanding Ln properties and factors that influence its conversion into useful products might help optimize biomass utilization. Improved bioprocessing processes can convert LCB components into value-added products, including Ln. This study summarises and compares current improvements in Ln extraction, along with depolymerization technologies that might improve bioprocessing cost-effectiveness. Commercial importance of Ln-derived goods, such as aromatics, biological polymers, and biofuels, including agrochemicals, is also addressed. Most recent trends in Ln conversion into value-added compounds, and current technical and commercial applications of Ln that have economic significance are herein discussed. Keywords: agricultural waste; Bf; Bm; LCB; Ln extraction.

The following work presents a new method that aims to study the quality of toothpastes, in particular, excessive presence of fluoride, which is a corrosive agent for dental alloys. Results showed that the proposed method allowed analysis of electrochemical properties from compounds that exist in these oral hygiene products, generally based on the concentration effect of fluoride present in toothpastes. Excess doses of fluoride can cause serious effects, such as corrosion of dental alloys. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear voltammetry (LV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) curves were herein recorded to identify characteristic electrochemical signals of different ingredients, in particular, fluoride concentration Keywords: CV; EIS, fluor; LV; toothpastes.

Agricultural residues are being explored as sustainable energy sources to mitigate global warming and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This study investigates biofuel production from a free-fall reactor using sugarcane bagasse (SCB) and cassava rhizome (CR) as feedstocks, employing both experimental and modelling approaches. Pyrolysis was conducted with varying SCB-CR blend ratios, from 400 to 650 °C, with a 30 min residence time, to analyse yields of biochar, bio-oil and biogas. Ultimate and proximate analyses were performed on feedstocks and biofuels, to determine their properties. Mathematical models for biofuel yields were developed using multi-expression programming (MEP), and validated against multilinear regression (MLR). Optimal 50:50 SCB-CR composition produced the highest bio-oil yield of 36.2%, with a heating value of 23.6 MJ/kg, at 550 °C, alongside with 16.2% biochar and 47.6% biogas. MEP models demonstrated superior accuracy, with R² values of 0.974, 0.917 and 0.774, for biochar, bio-oil and biogas, respectively, outperforming MLR models. Results indicate that co-pyrolysis of SCB and CR enhanced biofuel yield and quality, due to synergistic effects. Integration of experimental data with modelling provides a pathway in optimizing process parameters for large-scale biofuel production. Keywords: biofuel; CR; modelling; MEP; pyrolysis; SCB.

Nanocomposites (NC) derived from electrically conductive polymers have emerged as promising materials for advanced applications in sensors, semiconductors and supercapacitors. The performance of these materials is critically influenced by environmental factors, with humidity exposure (HE) playing a pivotal role in determining their thermal and electrical behaviours. PIN, recognized for its high redox activity, tunable conductivity and thermal stability, has been integrated with WC, a material known for its exceptional hardness, wear resistance, high electrical conductivity (σDC) and thermal resilience. In this study, a novel series of NC electro polymers with WC were synthesized via FeCl₃-initiated chemical oxidative polymerization of indole in CTAB presence. WC was incorporated at varying wt% (5, 10 and 15), to assess its impact on the composites’ properties. Influence of relative humidity (40%) on thermal stability and σDC of NC was systematically evaluated. Structural and morphological analyses were performed to elucidate composites’ conductivity, stability and reliability under fluctuating humidity conditions. Results revealed that inclusion of WC significantly enhanced thermal and electrical properties of PIN, while providing superior resistance to humidity-induced degradation. Notably, NC with 15 wt% WC exhibited highest σDC, achieving 36.4mS/cm after 6h of HE. These findings highlight NC’s potential as robust materials for diverse applications in industrial, environmental, medical and agricultural domains, where stability under variable humidity conditions is paramount. Keywords:band gap; conductivity; HE; nanocomposite; PIN; WC.

This work focused on the electrochemical behaviour of a silver (Ag) deposit, from a mirror factory effluent, on the surface of an aluminium electrode. To carry out this study, two samples were taken from the same location of the mirror factory, before and after copper plating. Different applied potentials were selected based on results obtained from linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) analysis (potential window). Based on chronoamperometry (CA) measurements and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results, it can be seen that applied potentials affected the Ag deposit’s electrochemical behaviour, proving that it tended to be favoured by cathodic potential. Keywords: Ag recovery; CA; electrochemical behaviour; electrodeposition; EIS; LSV; SEM; EDS; XRD; XRF.

Clobazam (CLB) is a benzodiazepine and a central nervous system depressant. This first ever reported paper introduced a novel potentiometric sensor designed for the simple cost-effective assay of CLB in pharmaceuticals and spiked human urine (SHU). The sensor leveraged an ion association complex between CLB and bromophenol blue (BPB), which is a sulfonephthalein dye, integrated into a poly vinyl chloride matrix, with dibutyl phthalate as plasticizer, and prepared in tetrahydrofuran. IR spectral data were obtained to confirm the formation of CLB-BPB ion-association complex. For CLB, potentiometric measurements of the sensor yielded a linear calibration curve in the range of 9.3 × 10-5 to 4.8×10⁻4 M, with a regression coefficient of 0.9712. The slope of 30.35 indicated Nernstian behaviour of the sensor, corroborating two N atoms in CLB. The sensor demonstrated excellent performance, with a mean accuracy of about 98%, recovery from tablet formulations of 96.83%, and recovery over 96% from SHU samples. The interference study revealed the inactive role of common cations and anions, while measuring CLB potential. Additionally, the sensor showed excellent accuracy, precision, robustness and ruggedness, which makes it highly suitable for routine assays in pharmaceutical and physiotherapeutic laboratories. This method provides a reliable tool for monitoring CLB levels, addressing the need for effective therapeutic drug monitoring. Keywords: BPB; CLB; ion-association complex; pharmaceutical and potentiometric sensor; spiked human urine sample.

Fish oil is one of the most valuable dietary complements for healthy bodily functions. The effects of this product vary from fast and healthy development of cognitive abilities to prevention of cardiac diseases. One of most important components of fish oil is Omega-3, made from a variety of fatty acids (FA), such as Eicosatetraenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), on which the present study has focused. As the human body can hardly synthesize these elements on its own, it is crucial to include them as part of a daily diet. However, fish oil capsules on the market are highly priced, and might contain chemical additives. This work’s main goal was to propose a valorization method for the waste of Sardina pilchardus, of which choice was based on its oily properties, and on the fact that it is the most present and consumed species in Morocco. Fish oil extraction was completely organic, and performed without any additives or chemicals. This oil can be used as animal feed additive and supplement. Additionally, the presence of multiple FA, specially EPA and DHA, was herein proved by using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis. Obtained quantities of pure oil exceeded 50 mL/kg fish waste. Keywords: fish oil; fish waste; GS-MC; Middle-atlas; Morocco; Omega-3; Sardina pilchardus; valorization.

Agriculture, food and food-processing sectors produce 1.3 billion tonnes of lignocellulosic-based biomass (LCB) globally each year. LCB is a viable alternative energy source, due to its economical nature and minimal waste production. LCB may be efficiently transformed into fuels like bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas, along with higher-value products, such as organic acids, enzymes, biopolymers and charcoal. Nonetheless, owing to its structural intricacy and resistance, LCB presents difficulties for large-scale application. Consequently, its preparation is essential for effective delignification. The approach isolates hemicellulose and cellulose (CL) from lignin within a complex polymer matrix. This diminishes matrix size, while augmenting surface area of CL molecules, hence enhancing their accessibility to microorganisms and enzymes for hydrolysis and fermentation, respectively. Pretreatment procedures may be classified as chemical, physical, chemical/physical or biological. Physical methods include mechanical grinding, ultrasound and electromagnetic radiation. Chemical methodologies comprise acid/alkaline hydrolysis, organosol processes, ionic liquids and ozonolysis. Physical-chemical processes encompass ammonia fibre explosion, CO2 detonation, moisture explosion and liquid hot water filtering. The use of particular yeasts, fungi and bacteria in biological pretreatment processes is not yet extensively implemented. Keywords: biofuels; biomass; hydrolysis; pretreatment procedures; value-added goods.

Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) presents a significant challenge in terms of diagnosis, follow-up and recurrence monitoring. Current methods for follow-up, such as cystoscopy and cytology, are invasive, time-consuming, and often associated with discomfort for patients. Hence, there is a pressing need for the development of non-invasive, cost effective and efficient techniques for NMIBC monitoring. In this study, an electrochemical simplified method for the follow-up of NMIBC is proposed, offering a promising alternative to conventional approaches. The method is based on the detection of cancerous cells using a carbon paste electrode (CPE). This electrode showed considerable activity for the detection and characterization of cancerous cells which are manifested by the appearance of two redox peaks, and also a remarkable increase in specific capacitance. The effect of the presence of iron ions in the electrolytic medium showed a very considerable difference in voltammograms. Fenton reaction was manifested by two redox peaks characteristic of the presence of cancer cells. Keywords: BC; CPE; CB; EIS; non-invasive follow up; SWV.

Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) is considered the most effective remediation material for contaminated soils, especially by heavy metals. In this case, nZVI were extracted from two different iron salt precursors, FeCl3 (FC) and Fe(NO3)3 (FN), and then coated onto SiO2, at 650 and 800 ºC. Synthesis of nZVI was carried out in a C₂H₆O medium, under N atmospheric conditions, using Fe3+ with Fe(NO3)3 and FeCl3, as counter ions, and NaBH4 as reducing agent. XRD and SEM were used to characterize structures of nZVI. Furthermore, electrical properties of nZVI produced in an aqueous medium were examined. Keywords: electrical conductivity; FC; FN; nZVI; SiO2.

Enhancing techniques for obtaining fluted pumpkin seeds oil (PSO), technically known as Telfairia occidentalis, was the goal of this study. The main objective was to analyse chemical and physical properties of the extracted oil, expediting the process by using response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural networks (ANN). Fluted PS were purchased from a local market, carefully washed, sun-dried, sorted from chaff and crushed. Using a Soxhlet extractor and n-hexane as solvent, PSO was extracted. For optimisation, a three-level, three-factor Box-Behnken design with 17 iterations was used. The sample’s weight, solvent volume and extraction time were the main factors taken into account for optimisation. According to the study's findings, RSM optimisation produced a 41.58% (w/w) pumpkin seeds oil yield (PSOY). ANN approach, on the other hand, produced a greater PSOY of 41.66% (w/w), demonstrating its superior capacity to forecast the ideal oil output. Standard industrial procedures were used to determine PSO density, specific gravity, moisture content and acid, saponification, iodine and peroxide values, among other parameters. When ANN and RSM were compared, it was found that the former was more reliable in predicting PSOY, since it had better coeeficients of determination (R2) and R2 adj. values (0.9746 and 0.9893) and lower root mean square error values (0.9889 and 0.9965). In conclusion, this study highlights the potential uses of fluted PS across a range of sectors. It emphasises how using statistical analytical approaches can significantly improve production operations. Keywords: ANN; extraction; percentage PSOY; PS; RSM.

To discriminate the structures of two polymers, 1,4-transpolymyrcene (TPM) and 1,4-cis polymyrcene (CPM), at molecular level, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was herein used as the main method. However, to enhance the reliability of findings, this method involves a longer ordering time, which results in higher costs. A simple electrochemical technique, based on the use of cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), was incorporated into the approach of this study. CV provided information on the polymers’ electronic properties, while EIS enabled to assess electrochemical properties and conductivity. These techniques were utilized to identify distinctions between TPM and CPM, without resorting to NMR analysis, and they provided crucial data on the polymers’ structure and electrochemical behavior. By comparing results obtained by these two approaches, the validity of conclusions drawn from NMR analysis was confirmed. This hybrid approach, combining advanced NMR techniques with electrochemical methods, enabled a more comprehensive characterization of TPM and CPM. Thus, it offers an integrated and more reliable approach to molecular structure discrimination, enhancing the understanding of natural polymers in diverse applications. Keywords: CPM; CV; EIS; NMR analysis; SWV; TPM.

forming an oxide layer on their surface. This causes several undesirable effects such as corrosion and malfunction. CR of Thermo Active Super Elastic Alloy (TASEA) immersed in artificial sweat (AS) with 100 ppm NaCl and 100 ppm urea was herein investigated and compared by polarization study and AC impedance spectra. It was seen that CR of TASEA immersed in AS with 100 ppm NaCl/urea increased. When TASEA was immersed in AS with 100 ppm NaCl linear polarization resistance (LPR) increased from 1760283 to 9506106 Ohm/cm2, icorr decreased from 2.382 x 10-8 to 4.008 x 10-9 A/cm2, Rct increased from 4884 to 12210 Ohm/cm2, impedance increased from 4.367 to 4.8, Cdl decreased from 10.442 x 10-10 to 4.1769 x 10-10 F/cm2 and phase angle increased from 48.1 to 68°. When TASEA was immersed in AS with 100 ppm urea LPR increased from 1760283 to 2430930 Ohm/cm2, icorr decreased from 2.382 x 10-8 to 2.004 x 10-8 A/cm2, Rct increased from 4884 to 10740 Ohm/cm2, impedance increased from 4.367 to 4.777, Cdl decreased from 10.442 x 10-10 to 4.748 x 10-10 F/cm2 and phase angle increased from 48.1 to 66°. Keywords: AC impedance spectra; AS; CR; NaCl, polarization study; TASEA; urea.

Polyaniline (PANI) is the oldest conducting polymer which has drawn demanding attention, due to its unique conductive properties and versatile applications in various fields. Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) is another promising material, due to its high electrical, thermal conductivity and great mechanical qualities, with various uses, including electrode constituents for batteries and supercapacitors (SC). The experiment of this study involved PANI and PANI/CNF synthesis, as well as the fabrication of their thin films on Indium Tin Oxide (ITO), using DCT. The primary focus was to examine electrical conductivity as a significant factor. The electrical conductivity of the hybrid composite consisting of PANI/CNF thin film-coated ITO was predominantly influenced by its dispersion state and thickness. Electrical conductance of PANI/CNF thin film on ITO glass prepared by Dip Coating Technique (DCT) was 41.78990 µS, whereas for PANI on ITO, and for bare ITO glass, was 7.30465 and 1.05238 µS, respectively. So, this study introduced a novel avenue for research in the domain of conducting polymers and their thin films on ITO substrates. Keywords: CNF; conducting polymer; DCT; hybrid composites; ITO; PANI.

Biomass torrefaction into fuel pellets is deemed a sustainable energy solution, which could mitigate over-dependency on fossil fuels. This study examined the effects of pelletization and torrefaction on selected physical and thermal properties of corncob waste (CW). Corncob samples were collected, sorted and pulverized, before torrefaction pre-treatment. Raw corncob (RC) and torrefied corncob waste (TCW) were screened to 0.3, 0.5 and 1.0 mm. Using starch (5 wt.%) as binder, RC and TCW pellets were produced, at compaction pressures of 50, 75 and 100 MPa. They were characterized by proximate, ultimate, physical, thermogravimetric and thermal analyses. All samples exhibited good quality and thermal properties, but those from TCW were better. Relaxed density of RC and TCW pellets varied from 700 to 876 and 616 to 800 kg/m3, respectively. Maximum relaxation values for RC and TCW pellets were 1.43 and 1.07, respectively. TCW sample (1.0 mm) had higher heating value of 25.8 MJ/kg, which was 29% greater than those from lignite or brown coal. Thus, pellets produced from TCW are suitable for energy applications. Keywords: compaction pressures; pelletized particles; particle size; TCW; TGA.

The long-standing history of low corrosion resistance in E316 CS poses a persistent challenge for its industrial applications. Green CI are among the most widely adopted and cost-effective methods to protect metals and alloys against corrosion. In this study, a novel approach involving controlled block polymerization of myrcene, a biobased isoprene dimer, with styrene, using a Nd(BH4)3(THF)3/BEM-based catalytic system, resulted in the synthesis of poly(1,4-trans myrcene-co-styrene) - PMy- copolymer. This transparent and adhesive copolymer was developed as CI agent. Experiments were conducted using WL method and electrochemical techniques, at various polymer Ct and IT. According to the results obtained from WL and electrochemical analyses, increased IE(%) was observed using a polymer Ct of V3, corresponding to 1,5 g/L, suggesting higher corrosion IE(%) properties. Electrochemical analyses revealed that PMy exhibited a uniform CI effect, with a cathodic predominance. Additionally, Rct of CS electrode in an untreated solution increased from 71.25 to 668.3 Ω cm-2, in a solution with PMy, after 24 h of IT. Keywords: CI; E316 CS; HCl solution; PMy.

into the effects of permanent magnetic field (MF) on water. The water molecule is polar, with a bond angle of approximately 104.5°. Electrical charges at O and H atoms were unevenly distributed. The negative charge was drawn toward O atom, and positive charges were redistributed toward H atoms. Water is a polar solvent. The applied MF influenced the orientation of dynamics of H bonds between water molecules, of which process depended on MF parameters. Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy was applied to research potassium carbonate (K2CO3). One indicator of magnets’ properties is magnetic induction. It was shown that MF and strength were essential for this effect, which was on a limescale, in a reversed scheme of arranging magnets. In a non-reversed scheme, the effects manifested in water. The authors researched the effects of a permanent MF on water with and without dissolved K2CO3. The potential application was for animal husbandry. Keywords: animal husbandry; FT-IR; K2CO3; magnetic field; water.

Recent research on capacitive deionization (CDI) materials indicates that salt removal efficiency of their cells can be increased by modifying one carbon electrode, with an electrode operating through a redox mechanism. A potential candidate is δ-MnO2, due to its diverse crystalline phase structure, low price and environmental friendliness. This study synthesized the layered phase of δ-MnO2 via sol-gel route, targeting a high-performance electrode for hybrid CDI (HCDI) technology. Analyzes results on δ-MnO2 composition and porosity were verified through BET, Raman, SEM and X-RD measurements. Electrochemical properties confirmed pseudo-capacitance charge-storage of δ-MnO2 and high durability, with specific capacitance (Csp) of 143 F/g, at a rate of 1 A/g, remaining stable after 1000 cycles. Efficiency of salt removal by optimal performance active material, at 1.4 V, with a moderate salt adsorption capacity (SAC) of 22.5 mg/g, was investigated. Keywords: δ-MnO2; HCDI; pseudo-capacitance; SAC; water desalination.

The corrosion rate of an orthodontic wire (OW) made of thermo active alloy (TAA) immersed in artificial saliva (AS), in the absence and presence of copper barrel brandy (CBB), was herein examined by potentiodynamic polarization study, and it was observed to decrease. When TAA was immersed in AS, in the presence of CBB, linear polarization resistance value decreased from 208.94 x 103 to 37.97 x 103 Ohm/cm2, and corrosion current increased from 2.192 x 10-9 to 12.99 x 10-9A/cm2. It was therefore determined that individuals using OW composed of TAA should refrain from orally ingesting CBB. The change in corrosion potential was observed to be within 50 mV, suggesting that CBB acted as a mixed-type additive. This implies that it enhanced both anodic and cathodic processes of corrosion. The results of this research could be utilized in the field of dentistry. TAA’s surface morphology was investigated by scanning electron microscope. Keywords: artificial saliva; copper barrel brandy; corrosion rate; dentistry; potentiodynamic polarization; scanning electron microscope; thermo active alloy.

Corrosion of rebars is a major problem faced by structures, especially in marine environments. Reinforcing bars are subjected to pitting corrosion from chloride attacks. Furthermore, structures are also susceptible to acid rain and attack from sulphate species. To overcome such challenges, surface engineering can be an effective option. Recent studies have shown rising focus of engineers and scientist on preventing corrosion from rebars and reinforcing steels, by applying a layer of coating. Such coatings include enamel, epoxy, duplex enamel and epoxy, galvanization, electroless Ni and self-healing coatings. They effectively shield the rebars by providing either barrier or passive protection. Therefore, the present work aimed to summarize different coating variants used for corrosion prevention of rebars, and present recent trends. Further research directions to make the coatings more cost-effective were also reviewed. Keywords: concrete; corrosion resistance; electrochemical corrosion; reinforcing steel; surface coating.